Thursday, January 15, 2015

Freedom of Speech vs. Avenging the Prophet: A Short Bibliography

Trying to Understand the Actions of French Islamic Terrorists
 Courtesy of CNN
Evelyn E. Smith


M.S. In Library Science, University of North Texas (2012)

Addendum
December 21, 2015

Readers should note that within the House of Islam every action has an opposite reaction. Hence, devout Muslims who also seek to reform their faith without the violence that is currently inflecting terror upon the world are voicing their opposition to Muslim extremism.  While Christianity underwent a Reformation and a Counter Reformation, Islam has yet to transform itself so that Sunnis and Shiites can peacefully co-exist--never mind living with other "People of the Book"--Jews and Christians.  

Akyoli, Mustafa. (2015, December 21). A medieval antidote to ISIS. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/21/opinion/a-medieval-antidote-to-isis.html?mwrsm=Facebook&_r=0

Reviving the now heretical concept on irja, which literally translates as "postponing" [judgment] until the afterlife, just might be the start of a Muslim Reformation.

Nomani, Asra Q. and Afrafa, Hala. (2015, December 21). As Muslim women, we actually ask you not to wear the 'hijab' the name of interfaith solidarity. Washington Post. Retrieved from


Conservative, yet well-educated and open-minded Muslim women argue that to force Muslim women to wear a hijab, which is ordinarily mistranslated as head scarf, actually subjugates Muslim women rather than honoring them, noting that fundamentalist Islamic theology shouldn't be the only belief system that devout Muslims should be allowed to practice.
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Below readers will find a catalog of possible reasons that apologists give for Said and Cherif Kouachi's massacre of an anti-authoritarian, leftist, satirical Parisian weekly's cartoonists and journalists along with the subsequent storming of a Jewish grocery by one of their brethren. Both western and Islamic writers have proposed religious, socioeconomic, psychological, and political explanations for their heinous actions. However, since both moderate Muslims from around the world and their Western counterparts with the exception of United States President Barack Obama have visibly shown that they condemn the radical Muslim terrorists' actions, this points the way to an eventual thoughtful, non-violent resolution to the differences that besets the clash of Western and Middle Eastern culture. Such reconciliation will take much time and effort, for the publication of a cover depicting Mohammad after this killing spree is also sparking anger throughout the Muslim world.

Individuals seeking to explain the reasons for these attacks fall into easily identified categories: 

 1) The attacks result from an edict to avenge blasphemous images of Mohammad; 

 2) Fundamentalist Muslims literally  rather than figuratively interpret the Hadith; 

 3) French society hasn't fully integrated Muslims from its former colonies;

 4) Islamic terrorists continue to blame the Jews and Israel for all their problems; 

 5) AQAP is competing with ISIS in a grizzly, one-up-man-ship-contest; 

 6) Radical Muslims can't take a joke like most Christians, Jews and more moderate Muslims     can;

 7) Muslim terrorists are simply bullies.

The Images of Mohammad Are Blasphemous Excuse for Terror
Courtesy Hexie Farm
This view holds that not only are Charlie Haebo's cartoons and articles sometimes scatological and always in poor taste, but they are also blasphemous since the Quran prohibits idol worship. Here Muslims fall back on circular reasoning, pointing to the Hadith, a collection of sayings attributed to Muhammad and his early followers that Muslims use to interpret the Quran: The Hadith forbids images of the Prophet, for in principle, although certainly not in the case of Charlie Haebo's cartoons, seeing a drawing of Mohammad might lead believers to idolatry.  Non-Muslims must understand that Islam is a religious and political doctrine based not only on the Quran but also on the Hadith and the Sira--both of which focus on the life of Mohammad, the role model for all Muslims. Thus, for pious Muslims, not showing deference to Mohammad is tantamount to disrespecting Islam. 

Bingham, John. (2015, January 7). Prophet Mohammad cartoons the roots of Muslim fury. The Telegraph. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/11331774/Prophet-Mohammed-cartoons-the-roots-of-Muslim-fury.html
It's been 400 years since “Europeans were put to death for heresy”, but John Bingham argues that this is the motive behind the extremists who carried out the Charlie Hebdo massacre (2015, January, para. 1-2). Bingham thus points out numerous instances in which radical and fundamentalist Muslims have reacted violently against similar instances of what they would label as blasphemy, starting with Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's issuing a fatwa* as haram in 1989 against Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses (1988) (2015, January 7, para. 3). Similarly, when Theo Van Gogh (1957-2004), a Dutch film director, dared to criticize the treatment of women in Islam, a  Dutch Moroccan Muslim murdered him.  Curiously enough, Van Gogh entitled his film Submission, which translates into Arabic as "Islam".
The cartoonists at Charlie Hebdo, however, not only drew the Prophet, but they also insulted him through the use of satire and off-color humor (Bingham, 2015, January 7, para. 4 & 11). This particularly angers French Muslims whose ancestors hail from North Africa since some Sunni Muslim clerics not only forbid the drawing of Mohammad, but they also prohibit drawing the likeness of any living thing as haram* (Bingham, 2015, January 7, para. 10). Bingham maintains that Christians are better able to ignore those who insult their beliefs since Protestants and Catholics have a 400 year jump start successfully coping with religious insults (2015, January 7, para. 19).


Ring, Wilson. (2015, January 15). Salman Rushdie threatened over book, defends freedom.  Retrieved from http://news.yahoo.com/salman-rushdie-threatened-over-book-defends-free-speech-001305283.html
Rushdie while speaking at the University of Vermont, Rushdie has defended absolute freedom of speech, explaining, “Freedom is indivisible . . . You can't slice it up, otherwise it ceases to be freedom. You can dislike Charlie Hedbo, . . . but the fact that you dislike them as nothing to do with their right to speak (Ring, 2015, January 15, para. 5).


Choudary, Anjem. (2015, January 8). People know the consequences; Opposing view. USA Today. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2015/01/07/islam-allah-muslims-shariah-anjem-choudary-editorials-debates/21417461/
Radical British Muslim cleric Anjem Choudary argues that while Muslims disagree about how much freedom of speech the law should permit, for even non-Muslims, or kafirs, acknowledge that freedom of speech requires personal responsibility ( 2015, January 8, para. 2). Choudary goes on in detail to clarify this stance: “Muslims consider the honor of the Prophet Muhammad to be dearer to them than that of their parents or even to themselves. To defend it is considered to be an obligation upon them. The strict punishment if found guilty of this crime under sharia* (Islamic Law) is capital punishment implementable by an Islamic state. That is because the Messenger Mohammad said, 'Whoever insults a prophet, kill him” (2015, January 8, para. 3). 


Taylor, Adam. (2015, January 7). Why would terrorists kill cartoonists? Washington Post. Retrieved from
http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2015/01/07/why-would-terrorists-kill-cartoonists/


Sunni Muslims in particular consider blasphemy against the Prophet a crime, although teachings on how it should be punished vary (Taylor, 2015, January 7, para. 6).
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A Literal Interpretation of Jihad
Courtesy Sullivan-County.com
The Quran commands followers of Allah to wage a jihad*, or holy war, on infidels*, not to mention Sunnis and Shiites battling each other, so a pair of disaffected, fundamentalist Muslims might have taken this precept literally, and thus with Al Qaeda in the Arab Peninsula's blessing, they undertook their own personal armed struggle.


Engber, Daniel. (2006, February). Graven images 101: Does Islam really prohibit images of religious figures. Slate.com.  Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2006/02/graven_images_101.html

The edict against depicting Allah and the prophets comes from the Hadith. Generally, however, Shiite Muslims" are more flexible on what drawings they allow than Sunni Muslim* are. For example, Persian art in the 15th and 16th centuries pictured Mohammed with his face, hands, and feet covered up, and some even earlier Persian art shows full views of the Prophet. Shiite Muslims have also portrayed the Prophet's grandson (Engber, 2006, para. 2-3).


Whether Sunni or Shiite, all Muslims agree, however, that neither Muslim nor infidel can draw Allah under any circumstances--a ban that Jews and Christians also follow. Whether or not Christians and Jews consider illustrations of biblical figures kosher, however, depends in part upon the differences that exist between different sects or denominations: Historically, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Episcopal Christian believers as well as Reform Jews have been much more likely to use depictions of biblical figures as teaching tools while Calvinists and evangelical Protestants have been much more hesitant to use such illustrations, seeing this as a violation of the first commandment—Thou shalt have no other gods before me"(Exodus 20:3) as have Orthodox Jews (Engber, 2006, para. 4-6). 

 Kaleem, Jaweed. (2015, January 7). Why Muslims are talking about Islam and blasphemy after Charlie Hebdo. Religion. Huffington Post.  Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/01/07/charlie-hebdo-muslims-blasphemy_n_6433104.html

Islamic leaders throughout the world have spoken out against this terrorist attack, pointing out that it doesn't represent “Muslim values” even as responses have ranged from supporting calls to educate non-Muslims about the Islamic faith to debating about Islamic values concerning blasphemy (Kaleem, 2015, January 7, para. 3-4). For example, Azhhar Azeez, the President of the Islamic Society of North America, explains that a definite boundary exists that separates freedom of speech from bigotry (Kaleem, 2015 January 7, para. 4).


Kaleem then furnishes a short summary of views on the pictorial depiction of Mohammad, noting that these aren't banned by the Quran, but the Hadith, a collections of the sayings of Mohammad, forbids this practice since it might make an idol of the prophet (Kaleem, 2015, January 7, para. 8).


Similarly, Yasir Qadhi, an Assistant Professor of Islamic Studies at Rhodes College in Memphis, Tennessee, emphasizes that while defending Mohammad's honor is a sign of belief, this is best done “by following his teachings and practice, not by murdering in his name.” Qadhi admits that the penalty of blasphemy is death, but he then specifies that an Islamic state must carry out this punishment, rather than vigilantes (Kaleem, 2015, January 7, para. 11-12). This begs the question as to whether or not the Kouchi brothers were operating on behalf of a political entity like Al Qaeda and thus were fulfilling Sharia law.

See also:

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The Discrimination Charge
Courtesy IRIS.org
This defense holds that Muslims living in France haven't been fully assimilated into French society and feel discriminated against. Thus, Said and Cherif Kouachi, who through born in France were of Algerian descent, “fell through the cracks” after authorities sent to a school for troubled teens with “social needs”. Upon leaving school, the two young men joined a Parisian gang led by two radical imams. 

And the next generation of terrorists is ready to take their place:


Beardsley, Eleanor. (2015, January 14). Some French Muslims see conspiracies in Paris shooting. Parallels. NPR. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2015/01/14/377230249/some-french-muslims-see-conspiracies-in-paris-shootings


A Paris daily newspaper, Le Figaro, reports that 80 percent of the students at the Pierre de Geyter Middle School in the St. Denis district, a primarily Muslim neighborhood, refused to participate in the national moment of silence observed throughout France following the attacks on the offices of Charlie Hebdo and a kosher Jewish grocery (Beardsley, 2015, January 14, para. 1-3). Some French Muslims also believe that the video showing the shooting at the publisher's offices were staged (Beardsley, 2015, January 14, para. 5).
Burke, Daniel. (2015, January 8). Why Islam forbids images of Mohammed. CNN News. Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/2015/01/07/living/islam-prophet-images/
After noting that the terrorists who stormed the offices of Charlie Hebdo yelled out, “We  have avenged the Prophet”, Burke notes that the fiat forbidding pictures of Mohammad started out as an attempt “to ward off idol worship” (2015, January 8, para. 1 & 3). Burke goes on to explain that this decree is possibly a reaction against the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, although paradoxically the zealots' actions are “a kind of reverse idol worship” (2015, January 8, para. 6).

However, Burke also points out that this motive doesn't tell the whole story since many Muslims who have immigrated to European countries from the Middle East feel that these offensive images weren't merely being critical, but they were also a form of bullying (2015, January 8, para. 13). He also notes that observant Muslims in the United States have also opposed the Comedy Central cartoon South Park's depiction of Mohammad as well as the “Draw Mohammad Day” that followed in its wake (Burke, 2015, January 8, para. 14). Most recently, some Muslim countries have banned recent biblical epic films like the remake of Exodus and Noah because they told the stories of Hebrew prophets (Burke, 2015, January 8, para. 15).


Verses from the Quran decorate Sunni mosques because of this prohibition against the illustration of living things even if some historical instances exist where Shiite Muslims in Iran, Turkey, and Central Asia pictured the prophet (Burke, 2015, January 8, para. 16-17).

Hirst, Tomas. (2015, January 7). How Charlie Hebdo became a top terrorist target. Business Insider. Retrieved from  http://www.businessinsider.com/history-of-how-charlie-hebdo-became-a-top-terrorist-target-2015-1

The French Council of Muslim Faith (DFCM) and the Grand Mosque of Paris has in the past unsuccessfully tried to sue Charlie Hebdo to prevent the publication of offensive cartoons. Moreover, even those who defend the magazine's right to publish these offending cartoons admit that they have been crass (Hirst, 2005, January 7 para. 3 & 17).


Pleasance, Chris. (2015, January 12). They were too weak to resist jihad,' says former boarding school teacher: How Kouachi brothers went from football-loving teenagers with no interest in religion to extremist killers. Daily Mail. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2906376/They-weak-resist-jihad-says-former-boarding-school-teacher-Kouachi-brothers-went-football-loving-teenagers-no-religion-extremist-killers.html

When the mother of Said and Cherif Kouachi couldn't care for her two teenage sons after the death of their father, French social workers sent them to an isolated boarding school that specializes in education children with “social needs” in the Mastiff region of France (Pleasance, 2015, January 12, para. 3-5). As teenagers they were passionately interested in football, but  they were far less interested in their studies (Pleasance, 2015, January 12, para. 6-8). After leaving school at age 18, the brothers took up a life of petty crime where they they fell under the influence of two radical imams (Pleasance, 205, January 12, para. 9-11). French authorities may have another generation of disaffected terrorists to contend with since Said is supposedly the father of at least two children while Cherif has fathered at least one child (Pleasance, 2015, January 12, para. 27).
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If All Else Fails, Try "It's Israel's Fault"

Courtesy World Religious News
While plugging a book on Jon Stuart's Daily Show, January 12, 2014, former President Jimmy Carter blamed the terrorist attacks on Israel's occupation of the West bank.

Jimmy Carter: Israeli-Palestinian conflict a cause of Paris attacks. (2015, January 13). Jewish News. Retrieved from http://www.jewishaz.com/us_worldnews/world/jimmy-carter-israeli-palestinian-conflict-a-cause-of-paris-attacks/article_eae01bdc-9b65-11e4-967c-078a2f29f103.html
While a guest on Jon Stewart's Daily Show, January 12, 2015, former President Jimmy Carter attributed the terrorist attacks in Paris to Israel's occupation of the West Bank. 
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The King of the Mountain Theory: An Al Qaeda vs. ISIS Competition

Courtesy Quora.com
Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) wants to show its rival, the Islam State in Syria (ISIS), that it's still the premier Muslim terrorist operation, according to the British tabloid, The Daily Mail. Indeed, a corresponding ISIS threat warning that it plans to strike again in Western Europe and the United States supports this idea.

Burleigh, Michael. (2015, January 8). 'ANALYSIS: Was Charlie Hebdo massacre Al Quaeda's bid to re-establish itself as a global terror force after being eclipsed by ISIS', asks Michael Burleigh. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2901892/ANALYSIS-Charlie-Hebdo-massacre-Al-Qaeda-s-bid-establish-global-terror-force-eclipsed-ISIS-asks-Michael-Burleigh.html
As the Kouachi brothers were fleeing the Charlie Hebdo offices, after shouting “Allah Akbar”, or “God is greater” in Arabic, one of them cried out in French that they avenging the Prophet on behalf of Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, an affiliate of Al Qaeda in Yemen (Burleigh, 2015, January 8, para. 1). Burleigh theorizes that this suggests, “AQAP feels eclipsed by ISIS . . . , and it is determined to put itself back in the international spotlight” (2015, January 8, para. 3). Indeed, AQAP's Online magazine, Inspire, has included Charlie Hebdo's editor on its hit list (Burleigh, 2015, January 8, para. 4).


Additionally, AQAP has a foreign operations unit that trains disaffected Islamic citizens of western countries (Burleigh, 2015, January 8, para. 5). The leader of AQAP, Nasir Abdel Harem al Wuhayshi, originally served as Osama bin Laden's aide-de-camp and subsequently became Al Qaeda's general manager (Burleigh, 2015, January 8, para. 6).


Yemen, “the poorest Arab state”, makes a perfect staging ground for Islamic terrorists because a vacuum of power exists there because the Yemeni army stays busy fighting rebels (Burleigh, 2015, January 8, para. 7 & 8 & 22).
News bulletins January 14, 2015 confirmed that the Kouachi brothers were operating on behalf of Nasir Abdel Harem al Wuhayshi and Al Qaeda in Yemen.

Herridge, Catherine. (2015, January 14). Al Qaeda in Yemen commander claims responsibility for Charlie Hebdo attack. Associated Press. Fox News.  Retrieved from http://www.foxnews.com/world/2015/01/14/video-purported-to-be-from-al-qaeda-in-yemen-claims-responsibility-for-charlie/
Schmitt, Eric, Mazzetti, Mark, & Callimachi, Rukmini. (2015, January 15). Disputed claims over Qaeda role in Paris attacks. New York Times.  Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/15/world/europe/al-qaeda-in-the-arabian-peninsula-charlie-hebdo.html?emc=edit_th_20150115&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=48045608

American counter terrorist experts believe that the youngest of the two Kouachi brothers, Cherif took the lead in the attack on the Charlie Hebdo newspaper offices, even though Said may have also traveled to Yemen (Schmitt, 2015, January 15, para. 2). This information further clarifies Cherif's statement made to a French TV statement last week that Anwar al-Awlaki financed his trip to Yemen in 2011 (Schmitt, 2015, January 15, para. 5). Counter-intelligence researcher, Brian Fishman, speculates that Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula may have given the brothers minimal training before sending them on their way along with a suggested hit list (Schmitt, 2015, January 15, para. 7) An undisclosed spokesman for AQAP told The New York Times that the Kouachi brothers were ”heroes of Islam”, but he referred to Armedy Coulibaly's attack on a Jewish grocery“ a coincidence” (Schmitt, 2015, January 15, para. 9).
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A Priest, a Reverend & a Rabbi, But Not an Imam, Walked into a Bar
Courtesy uncyclopedia.com
Toughened by the Reformation, the Counter Reformation, and the Holocaust, practicing Christians and Jews have had more time to adjust to vulgar, satirical and sacra religious taunts and jibes, but the Islamic world didn't experience first a reformation and then a subsequent enlightenment. Moreover, satire is haram*, or forbidden, particularly when infidels poke fun at the Prophet.

 See:


 Does Islam have a sense of humor? (2007,  November 20, BBC News). Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7102519.stm
Albaih, Khalid. (2015, January 8). When cartoons upset the 'wrong people'. Al-Jazeera English. Retrieved from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015/01/paris-charlie-hebdo-cartoons-att-20151810528121783.html

Khalid Albaih, an Muslim Arab cartoonist, condemns the attack on the offices of Charlie Hebdo while admitting, “It's no easy feat to come up with a cartoon that can pass all levels of censorship”, starting with self-censorship and progressing to government-imposed censorship (2015, January 8, para. 4). Albaih nevertheless finds the publication's slant “to be hurtful and racist”, so it takes some courage for him to continue to argue for freedom of speech (2015, January 8, para. 5).

 Note to Muslim Imams: Cartoons of the prophet receive a lot more attention if their creators are martyred, so it might be best public relations' ploy to borrow a page from Christian New Testament and turn the other cheek (Matthew 5:39).
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A Bullies Pick on the Weak Hypothesis

Courtesy Daily Caller
Right wing political parties in Europe and conservative American pundits argue that political correctness, multiculturalism (to the point of allowing Muslims to carve out areas in their countries where Sharia law is allowed), and an original unwillingness of ethnic Europeans to perform menial employment has left the West unwilling or unable to stand up to Muslim terrorists.


Not one of these reasons justifies this attack, but all of them provide possible clues for the reasons behind this particular attack on some ill-mannered infidels.

Parker, George. (2015, January). The blame for the Charlie Hebdo murders. The New Yorker.  Retrieved from http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/blame-for-charlie-hebdo-murders



George Parker believes that these murders aren't a result of France's failure to assimilate Muslim immigrants, nor do they have anything to do with France's support of the United States' actions against ISIS or its invasions of Iraq, They also can't be understood as a reaction against Charlie Hebdo's disrespect for the Islamic religion (2015, January, para. 1).

Parker, however, admits that Islam does include a minority of adherents who approve of violence in defense of their beliefs (Parker, 2015, January, para. 4). The newspaper also has a history of insulting the sensitivities of Jews and Christians, but only radical Muslims have responded with threats or murderous actions (Parker, 2015, January, para. 4). Parker thus concludes, “For some believers, the violence serves as a will to absolute power in the name of God, which is a form of totalitarianism" (2015, January, para. 4).
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    Some Reasons for Cautious [Long-term] Optimism
Courtesy mideastposts.com


Finally, in retrospect, readers must consider the reaction of Muslims to Charlie Hebdo's latest defiant cover:


Kuruvilla, Carol. (2015, January 14). Muslims around the world react to Charlie Hebdo's new cover. Religion. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/01/14/muslim-charlie-hebdo-cover_n_6473050.html

 In Cherif Koachi's “alleged neighborhood”, “Charlie Hebdo remains a symbol of 'the everyday humiliation of Muslims in France'” (Kuruvilla, 2015, January 14, para. 11). Meanwhile, authorities in Turkey and Iran have condemned the publication of this issue, a Turkish court blocking Internet access to a cover depicting a weeping Mohammed (Kuruvilla, 2015, January 14, para. 15-17). This contrasts with the more restrained response of Muslim clerics in the United States and the United Kingdom: The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) and the Islamic Society of North America defends freedom of the press while at the same time urges understanding and respect (Kuruvilla, 2015, January 14, para. 19). A group of 54 Muslim “leaders” has provided guidelines to British Muslim who seek to defend the Prophet short of violence (Kuruvilla, 2015, January 14, para. 24-25).


Nelson, Fraser. (2015 January 7). Not in our name—Muslims respond in revulsion to Charlie Hebdo massacre. The Spectator.  Retrieved from http://blogs.spectator.co.uk/coffeehouse/2015/01/not-in-our-name-muslims-respond-in-revulsion-to-charlie-hebdo-shooting/


The Muslim Council of France and its counterpart in the United Kingdom have harshly criticized the attack on the offices of the French weekly newspaper, Charlie Hebdo, and the Imam of the Mosque of Paris, Dalil Bouubakeur, has said, “We are entering a new phrase of this confrontation . . . we are horrified by the brutality and savagery” (Nelson, 2015, January 7, para. 1-2). A sampling of Tweeter posts by Muslim Tweeter account users follows.

 So now that non-Muslims readers know all possible justifications for the terrorists' actions, they can perhaps rationally consider the consequences of any possible future actions—or reactions-- before civilization descends further into an abyss of violence. Will Western cultures self-censor themselves because they fear the wrath of radical terrorists, or will they continue to defend freedom of the press?
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Islamic, Arabic Terms for Kafirs*

 Added January 19, 2015

Islamic.arts.org


Geometric designs and calligraphy usually take the place of representative art in Islamic countries.
Fatwa: Literally, a learned, official interpretation of Islamic, or Sharia, law. The media, however, uses this term to indicate that an Islamic cleric has pronounced a death sentence on a person or a group of persons.
 
What is a fatwa? (n. d.). The Islamic Supreme Council of America. Retrieved from http://www.islamicsupremecouncil.org/understanding-islam/legal-rulings/44-what-is-a-fatwa.html

Haram: Haram translates as "sinful" and therefore prohibited. Hence, since Sharia law associates drawing a picture of the Prophet with blasphemy, Muslim custom prohibits it. Trouble starts, however, when Muslims start requiring non-Muslims, or infidels, in Western countries, such as France and the United Kingdom, to conform to Islamic beliefs and practices.
An act, such as adultery, murder, or gossip, can be haram, or anything Islamic law or custom associates with sin can also be haram.  Thus, the term can be applied to a large number of dietary restrictions, such as  eating pork or shell fish or drinking alcoholic beverages, and more than a few personal habits, such as listening to or playing music or decorating with drawings or paintings of zoological or botanical subjects, dying the hair, or wearing perfume. 


Haram, of course, can indicate those acts that Christianity and Judaism classify as sins; for example, murder, bearing false witness, and adultery.  Conversely, those actions that Islam permits are halal. For example, wearing cotton is halal, but wearing silk is haram.


 Infidel: An infidel is an English term for an unbeliever, or a non-Muslim, a kafir, or a shirk.  Jews are infidels because they refuse to believe in Islam's Allah.   Christians are Infidels because they believe in the Trinity, so Muslims classify them as polytheistic. Western authors, like Olive Schreiner in The Story of an African Farm (1883), have also appropriated kafir so that it means an outsider.  
Jihad:  While jihad literally means "striving in the ways of Allah", it also means a war waged against unbelievers.  Muslims use the term to apply to a "greater jihad", which indicates an internal struggle to live a righteous life, or to fight on behalf of the oppressed, or they use it to apply to what they refer to as "lesser jihad", a struggle waged against unbelievers. 

Increasingly, Wahhabi* Muslims since the colonial era have applied the term to an armed struggle. Even so, the use of jihad in one way doesn't negate the use of it in other ways.
Streusand, Dougas. (1997, September). What does jihad mean? The Middle East Quarterly, pp. 9-17. Middle East Forum. Retrieved from http://www.meforum.org/357/what-does-jihad-mea


Sharia: The legal code of criminal and civil law that applies in many Muslim countries as well as a set of laws governing marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody that Muslims living in some European countries wish to be applied to themselves.
 
Johnson, Toni, and Sergie, Mohammad Aly. (2014, July 25). Islam: Governing Under Sharia. Backgrounders. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/religion/islam-governing-under-sharia/p8034



Shiite and Sunni Muslims: Sunni Muslims see themselves as much more traditional in their beliefs than their rival Muslims, the Sunnis, as evidenced by the Sunnis' reverence of the Prophet.  Approximately, 85 to 90 percent of all Muslims are Sunnis. Taliban and al Qaeda terrorists are members of this sect, although this doesn't mean that all Sunni Muslims are terrorists. Shiite Muslims claim that the son-in-law of Mohammad, Ali, and his descendants have the right to lead all Muslims. Shiite Muslims live primarily in Iran and Iraq, but large communities of Shiite Muslims also live elsewhere.



Sunnis and Shias: Islam's ancient schism. (2014, June 20). Middle East. BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-16047709



Wahhabism: An ultra-conservative, fundamentalist sect of Islam named after Muslim cleric Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab (1703-1792) that interprets the Quran literally. Most Wahhabi Muslims live in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Qater, although Wahhabi doctrines also influence the Taliban and other terrorist groups.


Analysis Wahhabism. (2014) Frontline. PBS. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/saudi/analyses/wahhabism.html
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 For a listing of classical rhetorical arguments for and against granting asylum to Syrian immigrants, go to the following link:

Smith, Evelyn. (2015, November 19). Pros and Cons of Accepting Syrian Immigrants. McGregor, Texas, McGinley Memorial Public Library Books and Friends. Retrieved from http://evelynelainesmith.blogspot.com/search?updated-min=2015-01-01T00:00:00-08:00&updated-max=2016-01-01T00:00:00-08:00&max-results=18

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