Supernova 2014J: A Collation of Early Sources

Analyzing SN2014J’s Significance

M82, home to SN2014J

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap060425.html

Evelyn Smith, MS in Library Science, University of North Texas (2012)

This week astronomers have greeted the news of a relatively close supernova from the Messier 82 Galaxy, a nearby, irregular galaxy with two spiral arms.  The relative nearness of the supernova—it-s only about 12 million light years away, along with its type—it’s a Ia supernova, or a former white dwarf—make it a promising candidate for a new standard of measure for distances across the cosmos.
 

SN2014J: Just the Facts

• Name of New Supernova: SN2014J

• Provisional Name: PSN J09554214+6940260

• First Reported Date of Discovery: January 21, 2014

• Galaxy of Origin: Messier 82 (M82, NGC 3034)

• Nicknames for Galaxy:  Starburst Galaxy, Cigar Galax

• Where to Look for Supernova: Between the Big Dipper & the Little Dipper in the Constellation Ursa Major

• Type of Supernova: Type IA (former white dwarf)

• Nearness to Earth: 12 million light years

• Magnitude at time of Discovery: 11.7

• Maximum Magnitude: 10.5

• Individuals Credited with Discovery: Tutor Stephen J. Fossey & undergraduate students at the University of London Observatory at Mill Hill—Ben Cooke, Tom Wright, Matthew Wilde, & Guy Pollack; two Russian astronomers, Leonid Elenin and I Molotov, who are also receive credit for confirming the London sighting, also claim to have made the discovery.

• Discovery confirmed by Cal Tech astronomer Yi Cao.

• Individual credited with first photos: Japanese Astronomer Koichi Hagaki

• Date first photos of supernova taken: January 14, 2014

____________

An Annotated Bibliography

of Early SN2914J Sources

Type Ia Supernova http://www.lbl.gov/Publications/YOS/Jul/

Addendum: A Fading Star

Last updated March 7, 2014

SN 2014J's brightness peaked in early February with a magnitude of 10.5.  Nevertheless, the excitement of discovering the closest Type 1a supernova in the last 400 years guarantees that astronomers will continue to monitor the former white dwarf in the coming weeks--or better yet, make that months. As the last dateline posted proves, astronomers will continue to watch SN2014J.

Now for a personal note:  One of the astronomers mentioned in a February 19, 2014, National Optical Astronomy Observatory News press release, Ginger Brygelson, is from my hometown of Waco, Texas, but her mom just got around to posting her part in documenting SN2014J on Facebook last night since a Florence, South Carolina, news station just recently publicized it: 

FMU’s Bryngelson has stars in her eyes. (2014, March 5).  WBTW.  Retrieved from http://www.wbtw.com/story/24895230/fmus-bryngelson-has-stars-in-her-eyes. 

However, I have chosen to summarize NOAO's official press release.

Astronomers at the National Observatory Continue to Watch SN2014J.  (2014, February 19).  National Optical Astronomy Observatory News, 14(1).  Retrieved from http://www.noao.edu/news/2014/pr1401.php

Two different research teams at Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) have observed SN2014J, a Type Ia supernova located in galaxy M82, including Francis Marion University’s Ginger Bryngelson and Clemson University’s Dina Drozdov, who were on site at Kitt Peak, Arizona, January 21, 2014, observing a fading, previously discovered Type Ia supernova, when University of London tutor Steve Fossey first reported the Type Ia supernova find.  Brygelson and Drozdov promptly switched from what they were viewing to Fossey's discovery, using an infrared Florida Multi-Object Imaging Near-Infrared Grism Observational Spectrometer (FLAMINGOS), attached to the Mayall 4-meter telescope.  Type Ia supernovae always make up part of a binary star system; however, astrophysicists like Brygelson and Drozdov find them especially intriguing because they accurately calibrate the expansion of the universe (Astronomers, 2014, February 19, para. 1-3).

Astrophysicists explore how Type Ia supernovae occur by analyzing how much energy they release over time in the different parts of the light spectrum, so when British observers first spotted SN2014J, the Americans were looking for a light echo from a supernova 600 days post explosion that occurs when nearby intervening dust reflects light from its explosion, thereby delaying the rays of light seen by the time it reaches the Earth (Astronomers, 2014, February 19, para. 4).  

At this point, Wisconsin, Indiana, Yale, and NOAO (WIYN) consortium staff astronomers quickly designed a schedule for their 3.5 meter telescope at Kitt Peak to observe SN2014J at twilight, using a One Degree Imager camera, ensuring that studying SN2014J wouldn’t interfere with previously arranged observations. The ODI will follow SN2014J’s fading light using the WIYN telescope, which has sufficient light-gathering power and image resolution to observe SN2014J at its peak and long after it fades.  By attaching different spectral filters, astronomers can detect the explosion as well as any “intervening, interstellar dust” that might otherwise block the supernova from Earth’s view (Astronomers, 2014, February 19, para. 5). 

English Editor. (2014, February 4).  SN2014J – supernova in M82.  Gloria Project.   Retrieved from http://gloria-project.eu/2014/02/sn2014j-supernova-in-m82

/

On January 21, 2014, the nearest nearest Type Ia supernova discovered in the last 400 years was spotted in the Meisser 82 (M82) galaxy, 11.4 million miles away.  Astronomers theorize that Type Ia supernovae are formed by exploding white dwarf stars.  Because they explode with “predictable brightness” Type Ia supernovae serve as “standard candles” for measuring distant galaxies” (Gloria, 2014, February 4, para. 1-2).  SN2014J reaches its maximum brightness with a magnitude in the R band of about 10 on January 31, 2014, although Gloria will keep monitoring its light curve for the next few months as will other observatories around the world during the next few weeks (Gloria, 2014, February 4, para. 3). 

Howell, Elizabeth.  (2014, January 27).  Cloudy weather led to ‘fluke’ M82 supernova discovery. Universe Today.  Retrieved from http://www.universetoday.com/108673/cloudy-weather-led-to-fluke-m82-supernova-discovery/

Cloudy skies that obscured other sites are responsible for a recent discovery made in an undergraduate workshop at the University of London of the new supernova found in the Cigar Galaxy (M82) at 7:20 p.m. UTC (2:20 p.m. EST The discovery took place only five minutes after the students finished eating pizza (Howell, 2014, January 27, para. 1-2 & 6 & 7). 

According to Tutor Steve Fossey, “The weather was closing in, with increasing cloud,so instead of the planned practical astronomy class, I gave the students an introductory demonstration of how to use the CCD camera on one of the observatory’s automated 0.35–metre [1.14-foot] telescopes” (Howell, 2014, January 27, para. 3).

Upon looking at the M82 galaxy, Fossey saw a star that he didn’t remember from previous views of this starburst galaxy whereupon a search of online images revealed a possible discovery.  However, since the night sky was becoming increasing cloudy, the students took one-and two-minute exposures with different filters as well as looking through another telescope to check to see if something was wrong with the first telescope they used (Howell, 2014, January 27, para. 4).

After checking for any reports of a new supernova and not finding any, Fossey then sent a message to the organization that catalogs supernovae, the International Astronomical Union’s Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, as well as to United States colleagues who regularly search for new supernovae.  Meanwhile spectroscopic measurements confirmed that the discrepancy was a supernova, which is now officially named SN 2014J (Howell, 2014, January 27, para.5).

Amateur astronomers should be able to see SN 2014J with small telescopes since it’s relatively nearby by astronomical standards at 12 million light-years away.  Indeed, SN2014J is the closest supernova seen since Supernova 1987A exploded in February 1987 at 168,000 light years away (Howell, 2014, January 27, para. 6). 

January 24, 2014, view of the M82 Galaxy: http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasa-spacecraft-take-aim-at-nearby-supernova/#.UuhPnhDnaM8

Kramer, Miriam.  (2014, January 30).  See the new supernova in galaxy M82 today in live webcast. Space.com.   Retrieved from http://www.space.com/24484-new-supernova-2014j-webcast-today.html

Amateur astronomers could watch a live webcast of the newly discovered Supernova 2014 J live online January 30, 2014 directly from Slooh at http://events.slooh.com.  The four University of London undergraduate students and their professor, Steve Fossey, who spotted the exploding star, took part in the online Slooh Space Camera webcast beginning at 4 p.m. EST (100 GMT) (Kramer, 2014, January 30, para. 1-2 & 9).  

They first witnessed the supernova after Fossey glimpsed “something odd” adjusting a telescope, which sent the group checking online archives of M82 images to confirm it was a new supernova. Fossey thus admits that the discovery is a fluke, “The weather was closing in, with increasing cloud, so instead of the planned practical astronomy class, I gave the students an introductory demonstration of how to use the CCD camera on one of the observatory's automated 0.35–metre [13.7-inch] telescopes," (Kramer, 2014, January 30, para. 4-5).

The new supernova, SN 2014J, will brighten until February 2, 2014, when it might possibly be visible through binoculars.  Astronomers believe SN 2014J, located only 11 million light years away, is a Type Ia supernova, a category of star that acts as a “standard candle” to measure cosmic distances with since Type Ia supernova emit an easily comparable brightness (Kramer, 2014, January 30, para. 6). 

While NASA’S Swift spacecraft can photograph a new supernova within hours after an astronomer reports the discovery, as Swuft already has with SN 2014J, NASA is also preparing to study the supernova from four other space-based observatories: the Hubble Space Telescope, the Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR), the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and the Chandra X-ray Observatory (Kramer, 2014, January 30, para. 7-8). 

Lemonick, Michael D. (2014, January 30).  A new supernova caught in the act:  Stars don't explode onNew Supernova Caught in the Act: Stars don't explode on schedule; when one does, it can shed real light on some cosmic mysteries.  Science & Space.  Time.  Retrieved from http://science.time.com/2014/01/30/supernova-explodes-nearby/

Unpredictable supernovae, or exploding stars that can “briefly outshine an entire galaxy”, prove crucial in the discovery of dark energy, “a mysterious antigravity force that pervades the universe, steadily pulling it apart” (Lemonick, 2014, January 30, para. 1).

The ideal supernova would explode close to home; but in the meanwhile, astronomers are celebrating “the next best thing”, a supernova spotted in Meisser 82, the Cigar Galaxy, only 12 million light years away by an astronomy professor at the University of London during a stargazing class, thus “giving scientists “practically a ring-side seat the big blast”  before it reaches its maximum brightness.  This timing allows astronomers to watch the supernova both  as it flares up and then dims from view (Lemonick, 2014, January 30, para. 2-3).

Type Ia supernovae like the one first observed January 21, 2014, are “exceedingly useful to cosmological research since they are less variable in magnitude than Type II supernovae, so astronomers can calibrate their variations in brightness, allowing them to calculate distances across the universe.  Type Ia supernova occur when white dwarf stars “pull in extra matter” until they reach their Chandrasekhar limit whereupon them destabilize and blow-up.  Type II supernovae occur when a “massive star” collapses and then rebounds explosively outward (Lemonick 2014, January 30, para. 3-4).

Cosmologists love Type Ia’s because they see their brightness from Earth as a guide to distance.  In 1998, the discovery of Type Ia in the early universe helped researchers discover that a mysterious unknown force, known as dark energy, is accelerating the expansion of the universe (Lemonick, 2014, January 30, para. 5).

Up to the late 1990’s, however, astronomers could only determine this rate of expansion by a factor of two since they measured distance in a step-wise fashion, first calculating the distance to nearby stars and then calibrating step-by-step to stars even  further away, so errors in computation increased.  But by the early 2000’s, the Hubble Space Telescope had reduced this error rate to about 10 percent while the microwave-sensitive WMAP satellite had further increased the accuracy of estimating vast distances in time and space even further, giving the universe the more or less precise age of 13.8 billion years.  Nevertheless, since astrophysicists would like a second, independent measurement, the Hubble team will take measurements with the Gaia satellite launched in December by the European Space Agency to plot a 3-D map of the cosmos (Lemonick 2014, January 30, para. 6-7).  

McRobert, Alan. (2014, March 5).  Supernova in M82 fades and reddens.   Sky & Telescope.  Retrieved from http://www.skyandtelescope.com/observing/home/Bright-Supernova-in-M82-241477661.html

Since a workshop of University of London astronomy students first spotted SN2014J in a relatively nearby irregular galaxy in Ursa Minor, Meisser 82 (M82), it has peaked at V magnitude 10.5 the first week of February.  The supernova, however, is still visible in amateur scopes as of March 5, 2014, although as a preliminary light curve provided by the American Association of Variable Star Observers, or AAVSO, shows, it is dimming:  Spectra photographs also confirm SN2014J to be an exploded white dwarf, or Type Ia supernova, that dust in the Cigar Galaxy has significantly reddened.   SN2914J would be two magnitudes bright if not obscured by this debris (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 1-2).

February 27th Update:

• A news release from [the University of California] Berkeley: Closest supernova in decades is also a little weird

• Space Telescope Science Institute: Hubble Monitors Supernova in Nearby Galaxy M82

From here, the recycled article essentially repeats the information found McRoberts' February 4th article:

SN2014J brightened in magnitude for nearly a week before University of London’s Stephen Fossey happened per chance upon the anomaly, although Japanese photographer Koichi Itagaki took prediscovery unfiltered images of a supernova as faint as 17.0 on January 14th as well as subsequent photos of the supernova through January 20th.  Astronomers can find it off to one side of the center of the M82 galaxy, a nearby cluster of stars 11 or 12 million light years away known for its thick dust bands, sprays of hydrogen gas, and a bright star nursery at its center.  The M81-M82 pair of galaxies, which are 2/3° apart, lie in a dim region of Ursa Major off the Big Dipper (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 3-5).

Where to Look

Using a AAVSO Variable Star Plotter, amateur astronomers can still find SN2014J in the mid-northern latitudes by first locating the M82 galaxy high in the northeast sky after dark, even though it later climbs even higher in the night sky through much of the night.  A preliminary light cure with photometry shows blue visual and red light bands in addition to eyeball magnitude estimates, shown in black (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 6-7).

Chris Stephan, of Wooster, Ohio, reported on a January 31, 2014, AAVSO discussion thread that he noticed a slight nebulosity around the supernova that other observers had also noticed when it interfered with their visual magnitude estimates.   Stephan suggested that “this is from all the galactic dust in M82” (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 9).

A Flukey Find

As often reported, University of London undergraduates attending a 10-minute telescope workshop and their teaching fellow first observed this “flukey find” early in the evening of January 21 at 19:20 UT when the infamous London weather was closing in around Mill Hill, so Fossey gave an introductory demonstration on using the CCD camera on the observatory’s automated 0.35 telescopes.  When adjusting the telescope’s position so as to view Galaxy M82, Fossey noticed a star that he didn’t recognize (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 10-14).

However, when the group inspected online archival images of the M92 Galaxy, they confirmed the presence of a never seen before star.  Accordingly, as the clouds rolled in, Fossey switched to taking one- and two-minutes exposures with different color filters, so they were able to measure the star’s brightness and color (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 15).

SN2014j is the nearest Type Ia supernova to Earth to occur since 1972, so despite its dimming, it still remains a valuable measure for determining the universe’s size and expansion rate as astronomers document what happens in “standard candle” supernova.  While an original press release and a BBC story repeated the claim that SN2014J remains the closest supernova since SN1987A, SN1994J exploded about the same distance away from Earth (McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 16-17).

Supernova in Another Messier Galaxy

On January 26, 2014, a fainter supernova, SN2014L, with an original magnitude of 17.2, appeared in Meisser 99 in the constellation Coma Berenices.  SN2014L peaked at a magnitude of 14,4 on February 8th, and declined to 15.3 on February 23rd. M99 is a spiral galaxy located approximately 50 million light years away in the northern part of the Virgo Cluster, four times further away than  the M82 Galaxy(McRobert, 2014, March 5, para. 18-19). 

---. (2014, February 4; updated February 6).  Supernova in M82 Passes Its Peak.  Homepage Observing. Sky & Telescope.  Retrieved from http://www.skyandtelescope.com/observing/home/Bright-Supernova-in-M82-241477661.html

The supernova that a group of astronomy students spotted in the Messier 82 galaxy January 21, 2014, brightened to a 10.5 magnitude in early February, but as of February 6th, it had stalled at a 10.6 magnitude.  As typical of Type Ia supernova, or white dwarf, it was still displaying an orange tint caused by the dust within the M82 galaxy. If it weren’t for its reddish glow, the supernova known as  S2014J would be two magnitudes brighter (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 1-3 & 5).

The M82 is as near a neighbor to Earth  as another galaxy can be at a distance of 11 to 12 million light years away, so it’s thick dust bands, sprays of hydrogen gas, and bright center that acts as a star incubator make it a favorite galaxy for both amateur and professional astronomers to observe.  As for the location of the newly found supernova, it’s off to one side at 58 arc seconds to the south-southwest (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 3).  Prediscovery, unfiltered CCD images taken of the supernova by Koichi Itagaki of Yamagata, Japan, first show its existence at a faint 17.0 magnitude on January 14.5.  By January 20, the day before a University of London astronomy class happened upon the supernova, it had brightened to an 11.9 magnitude (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 4 & 5).

Where to Look

The window for viewing SN2014J should close by the morning of February 12; but for now, it’s visible by 7 or 8 P.M. in the northeastern skies in mid-northern latitudes, although the light of the waning moon interferes with observing the supernova (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 6).  Sky & Telescope furnishes a comparison star chart to facilitate viewing, although star gazers can also make their own chart with the AAVSO Variable Star Plotter by entering the supernova’s official designation.  The light curve for the supernova also shows that this former white dwarf star is developed as expected for a reddened Type Ia supernova (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 7-8). .

A Flukey Find

The supernova’s discovery was a “flukey find” when a  10-minute workshop of undergraduate students  assisted by a teaching fellow at the University of London Observatory  came across an anomaly in the Meisser 82 Galaxy on the evening of January 21, 2014  (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 9-11).  Steve Fossey, the astronomy tutor explained that because the sky was becoming increasingly cloudy, he gave the students an introductory demonstration on how to use the CCD camera mounted on an automated 0.35 telescope, which he pointed at the “bright and photogenic galaxy” upon the request of the students.  Fossey then noticed a star that he didn’t recognize (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 12-13).

At this point, the students  looked at archived images of the M82 galaxy and realized that they were viewing a new star whereupon they started taking rapid one-and two-minute exposures with different color filters to determine if the star was still visible as well as to measure its brightness and color (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 14).

While  the original BBC press releases claimed that the newly discovered star was the nearest supernova since astronomers found supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud, SN 1993 J in M81 is actually the same distance away from Earth as are SN 2004am and SN 2008iz, which also appeared in the M82 galaxy.  Even so, SN 2014J is the nearest Type Ia supernova since 1972, which makes it invaluable for measuring the size and expansion of the universe (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 15-16).

Supernova in Another Messier Galaxy

On January 26, 2014, a fainter supernova, SN2014L; with a magnitude of 15.7 as of January 28.4 UT, appeared in M99 in Coma Berenices.  On February 2.1 UT, it measured at V magnitude 15.1, which is far too faint to be seen through amateur telescope.  The M99 is a spiral galaxy located in the Virgo Cluster about 50 million light years away (MacRobert, 2014, February 6, para. 17-19).

NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.  (2014, January 27).  Spacecraft take aim at nearby supernova.  Astronomy Magazine. Retrieved from  http://www.astronomy.com/news/2014/01/spacecraft-take-aim-at-nearby-supernova

To take advantage of the supernova discovered January 21, 2014, in the Cigar Galaxy (M82) approximately 12-million light years away, astronomers are planning to further observe this stellar event with a phalanx of space-based telescopes, including the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR), Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, and Swift mission (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 1-2).

Just a day after Steve Fossey's students  at the University of London discovered the explosion of the nearest Type IA supernova to occur in the last two decades,  the Swift Ultraviolet/Optical Telescope (UVOT) took a look at SN 2014J,  although unsuspecting astronomers took images of the supernova a week before Fossey spied it (NASA, 2014,  January 27, para. 3-4).  Neil Gehrels from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center explains, “Finding and publicizing new supernova discoveries is often the weak link in obtaining rapid observations, but once we know about it, Swift frequently can observe a new object within hours” (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 5).

Even though the supernova is “unusually close”, thick dust clouds most probably will reduce its apparent brightness (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 6).  All the same, Swift’s UVOT will help see through the haze because, according to Peter Brown from Texas A & M University, “Interstellar dust preferentially scatters blue light, which is why Swift’s UVOT sees SN 2014J brightly in visible and near-ultraviolet light but barely at all at mid-ultraviolet wavelengths” (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 6).

The study of the supernova will further astronomers’ understanding of how interstellar dust affects light—research that takes on increasing importance since Type IA supernovae like SN2014J serve as “standard candles” for measuring distances across the cosmos (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 7).  Also, since astronomers have never conclusively observed X-rays emitted from a Type Ia supernova, if Swift, Chandra, or NuSTAR documented this happening, this would be quite a coup as would Fermi’s sighting of high-energy gamma rays (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 8).

A Type Ia supernova can destroy a white dwarf star in two ways: 

1. A white dwarf orbiting a “normal star” pulls matter from it, gaining enough mass that it explodes;
2. Two white dwarf in a binary system can spiral inward, colliding together.

 (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 9)

Whatever scenario occurs, however, “the explosion expands outward at tens of millions of miles per hour. Short-lived radioactive elements formed during the blast keep the matter hot as it expands, so “factors determining when the supernova reaches its peak of brightness include the size of the blast, its transparency, and radioactive heating (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 10-11).  Astronomers predict that SN 2014J will continue to increase in magnitude into the first week of February; at which time, it should be visible through binoculars (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 11).  Amateur astronomers using only small telescopes can find the M82 Galaxy where the supernova is located with small telescopes (NASA, 2014, January 27, para. 12). 

Templeton, Graham. (2014, January 27). Nearby supernova will light up the sky for a week, grant insight into dark energy. Science!  Geek Newsletter.  Retrieved from  http://www.geek.com/science/nearby-supernova-will-light-up-the-sky-for-week-grant-insight-into-dark-energy-1583165/

Collecting data that could possibly explain dark energy, astronomers around the world are training their telescopes directly above the Ursa Minor Constellation in the next month to catch a glimpse of a supernova.  At its brightest, the M82, or Cigar Galaxy, explosion should be visible through binoculars (Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 1-3).

Stereotypical supernovae occur when a star becomes too massive and collapses on itself when it runs out of nuclear fuel.  However, Type Ia supernovae like the supernova that exploded in M82 usually occur “when a sudden, extreme influx of mass destabilizes it, which causes a the nuclear reaction that, in turn, triggers an explosion” (Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 4-5).  This explosion can occur when either a white dwarf siphons matter from a larger neighboring star or when two white dwarfs explode simultaneously.  The explosion of white dwarf stars give off fewer neutrinos that the implosion of larger stars [but more measurable explosions] (Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 6).

Even though SN 2014J is a little more than 11 million light years from Earth, this is a far distance for its neutrinos to travel.  Nevertheless, studying this Type Ia type of supernova should give researchers some “extremely reliable” measurements because these former white dwarf stars emit “uniform visual intensities”.  This allows astronomers to use them as measuring instruments, known as “standard candles”,  that can help record accurate distances across vast expanses of space (Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 7).

Astronomers are interested in learning more about neutrinos lately because 

1. High-fidelity detectors have captured the first high-energy neutrinos, but instruments can only detect them when they are comparatively nearby; 
2. They also give off signs of “so-called galactic supernovae”, so astronomers have put quick response systems in place to ensure that instruments can quickly trace them back to their source.

(Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 8).

Accordingly, any data that SN 2014 J furnishes will be useful for its “pure intensity, with readings many billions of times stronger than the sun”—a strong enough and reliable enough reading to show astrophysicists the universe's relative motions:  Because dark energy’s effects are so diffuse, instruments can detect it only in galaxy super clusters and super voids; thus, astronomers hope to use the supernova to help them better understand their patterns of distribution and motion (Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 9).  Meanwhile, recently gained information suggests the ninth-brightest star in the sky, Betelgeuse, which is only 640 light-years away, is close to exploding, so when it turns supernova, it could also help astronomers learn more about the universe (Templeton, 2014, January 27, para. 10).

January 22nd to January 24th Datelines 

Alert Notice 495: Bright Type-Ia Supernova  PSN J09554214+6940260 and Observing Campaign. (2014, January 22). American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO). Retrieved from http://www.aavso.org/aavso-alert-notice-495

AAVSO identifies the supernova in M82 with the temporary identification PSN J09554214+6940260, and credits Stephen J. Fossey with the discovery as of January 21, 2014 as of 21.81 UT.  The supernova’s magnitude at time of discovery was 11.7.  The AAVSO Webpage furthered identifies the supernova as “a reddened young Type-Ia supernova as confirmed first by Y. Cao of the Caltech.

Armstrong, Mark. (2014, January 23).  Bright, young supernova outburst in Messier 82. Astronomy Now.  Retrieved from http://www.astronomynow.com/news/n1401/23supernova/#.UuMI6hDnaM8

Astronomers have discovered “a very young, bright supernova . . . in the popular, nearby and well-place galaxy Messier 82 in Ursa Major” (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 1).  The supernova is the closest to Earth since SN1978 in the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy and SN1993J in M81.  As of January 24, the supernova has the magnitude of +10.9 (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 1).

SN-Discovery

Although astronomers caught the outburst very early, by the end of the month, it could be bright enough to be seen with high-powered binoculars. Images show the supernova as a bright ‘star’ to the south and west of the Cigar Galaxy’s nucleus (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 2).  Both Messier 82 and its companion galaxy Messier 81, make up the “best galaxy pairing in the Northern Hemisphere” since at only 1.4 million light years away, they are clearly visible (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 3).

The Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) gives credit for the discovery of the supernova currently designated as PSN_J09554214+6940260 to Stephen J. Fossey, who was assisting students during a routine training session at the University of London Observatory at Mill Hill when Fossey spotted a discrepancy in the M82 Galaxy, although the Liverpool Astronomical Social Supernova Search Team imaged the galaxy on January 19, 2013, and Japanese photographer Koichi Itagaki took pictures of the supernova on the nights of 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, and 22 of January, showing an increase in magnitude from +14.4 to +11.3.  However, his photograph on January 14, 2014 evidences no traces of the supernova.  The spectrum shows a “reddened” supernova, its brightness masked by M82’s dust (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 3).

Professional astronomers, including Y. Cao of Caltech, obtained this spectrum on January 22, 2013, using a Dual Imaging Spectrographon an ARC3.5 telescope to classify it as a Type Ia supernova based on its light curve, or rate of brightening (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 4-5). Type IA supernovae form when a white dwarf drains off material from its companion star, and once the remains of this star reach a critical mass, it explodes. Possibly, the star that that ultimately blew up as a supernova, or the supernova’s progenitor star, can be found in archival photographs (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 4).

Finder Chart

Messier 82 can be found in the upper right, or northwestern portion of the Big Dipper, which forms the seven brightest stars in Ursa Minor.  If it is a typical Type1a star, it should eventually reach the magnitude of +8.5, making it bright enough to be seen with small telescopes and high-powered binoculars (Armstrong, 2014, January 23, para. 5-6). 

Atkinson, Nancy.  (2014, January 23).  Astrophotographers Rush to Capture Images of New Supernova 2014J.  Universe Today.  Retrieved from http://www.universetoday.com/10b8462/astrophotographers-rush-to-capture-images-of-new-supernova-2014j/

With the appearance of one of the closest confirmed Type Ia supernovae since the 1800s, astronomers in the Northern Hemisphere have set out to capture images of SN2014 J while others have sorted through images of the M82 Galaxy taken within the last week to see if they have unknowingly captured the birth of a newly exploded star.  Currently, a 4-inch telescope is necessary to see SN2014J, so readers will need to rely on the photographs included in this Universe Today article to appreciate this wonder (Atkinson, 2014, January 23, para. 1-2). Paradoxically, however, “the buzz on Twitter has been that the supernova was so bright, that automated supernovae search telescopes and programs missed it because it was too bright” (Atkinson, 2014, January 23, para. 3). The white dwarf most probably went supernova “no earlier than January 11 and sometime prior to January 19; but so far, studying images of its surface hasn’t narrowed down the date any further (Atkinson, 2014, January 23, para. 4).

Chirgwin, Richard.  (2014, January 22)   Amateurs find the 'HOLY GRAIL' supernova – right on our doorstep: Exploding star a mere 11.5 million light-years away and it's a boon for science. Science.  The Register. Retrieved from http://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/01/22/amateurs_tag_new_supernova/

In astronomical terms, 11.5 million light years is quite nearby, so the new supernova’s proximity makes it a holy grail for astronomy.  Brad Tucker, of the Australian National University has also ironed out the time line for this discovery, pointing out that two Russian astronomers, using the MASTER-Amur robotic telescope in Blagoveshchensk first spotted the supernova beating out students working with Steve Fossey at University College, London.  There’s no debate, however, that a Japanese astronomer, Seichiro Kiyota, took the first confirmed images of the supernova, remotely operating the Mayhill iTelescope hosted by New Mexico skies whereupon other astronomers rushed in to confirm the find.  Indeed, Tucker notes that an analysis of the supernova’s spectrum at Apache Point’s ARC 3.5 in New Mexico confirmed that the object was actual a supernova (Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 1-6 & 9).

What makes the supernova a real find is that astronomers caught it almost in the act of exploding, and  it is near enough to furnish lots of data to study, even though astronomers estimate that about 50 stars across the universe explode per second (Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 7-8). Tucker explains, 

“Any supernova that we catch early will help us understand how they explode and what the star is that explodes, as the earlier we can observe a supernova, the more clues we get. For instance, at very early times, between an hour and a couple days, we may be able to see the shockwave of the explosion propagate through the star, much like the shockwave from a nuclear bomb occurs before the nastiness follows.”

(Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 10)

Astronomers have identified this particular type of supernova as a Type Ia, or the type of supernova that researchers now use to measure distances across the universe.  Observations of Ia supernovae, for example, led Brain Schmidt to conclude that the universe is expanding—a feat that earned him a 2011 Nobel Prize.  Tucker further details the importance of observing this particular type of supernova, 

“The fact that this SN is a Type Ia, caught young, means we have a good chance of finding clues to the explosion. Since it is so close, the Hubble Space Telescope has pre-imaging of the galaxy, images longer before the star would have blown up, which may allow us to directly see the star. It is so close, we can use actual measurements (i.e. velocity) instead of redshift.”

(Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 11)

Whereupon, he adds, “The only closer supernova was SN 1987A which went off in the Large Magellanic Cloud” (Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 12).

However, what makes this particular supernova even more invaluable to astrophysicists is that it is a “reddened” Ia supernova, meaning that it has exploded in a dusty environment, so astrophysicists can more easily measure it to determine how the dust influences the color of the supernova, and therefore its distance.  Then in the future, astronomers can use this data to standardize the measurement of other supernovae. In other words, Tucker enthused, “In short, this is the Holy Grail” since it check off almost all the boxes in the astronomer’s wish list.  Unfortunately, however, because of this much prized dusty environment, astronomers haven’t been able to detect neutrinos from Earth.” (Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 13-16).  

Amateurs all over the world are now being encouraged to check any images they may have of M82 taken in the past week.

Footnotes:

Students at University College, London under the direction of Steve Fossey via with the Russian astronomers for the credit of first spotting the supernova, although it’s possible that even earlier images of the supernova exist (Chirgwin, 2014, January 22, para. 17-18).

Closest, brightest supernova in 21 years goes boom in M82, the Cigar Galaxy. (2014, January 22).  Astro Bob.  Retrieved from http://astrobob.areavoices.com/2014/01/22/closest-brightest-supernova-in-21-years-goes-boom-in-m82-galaxy/

The evening of January 21, 2014, astronomer S. J. Fossey discovered a new supernova with a magnitude of 11.7 in the “Cigar Galaxy” M82 in the Great Bear constellation. Even a 3-inch telescope can spot this very bright supernova in a dark sky since it is the brightest, closest supernova since 1993J exploded in the neighboring galaxy M81 (Astro Bob, 2014, January 22, para. 1-2). 

Although M82 looks like a “ghostly streak of light” when seen through a small telescope or binoculars, astronomers have nicknamed it the Cigar Galaxy because of its elongated shape.  One of the closest galaxies to Earth, M82 can be easily spotted along with Galaxy M81 by amateur astronomers (Astro Bob, 2014, January 22, para. 3).

Because of the supernova’s brightness, it’s surprising that no one spotted it earlier since professional and amateur survey programs usually spot supernovae when  they are around a 15th magnitude of fainter.  If anyone had looked, it was visible as early as January 16, 2014, with a magnitude of 13.9 (Astro Bob, 2014, January 22, para. 4). 

The supernova, temporarily named PSN J09554214+6940260, is a Type Ia explosion, which means a white dwarf exploded after spending thousands of years siphoning off gas from a close companion star.  When the white dwarf’s mass reached 1.4 times the mass of the sun, it imploded, heating up to billions and degrees, and exploded (Astro Bob, 2014, January 22, para. 5).

 

To find M82 look for the first above the bowl of the Big Dipper in the constellation Ursa Major in the night sky adjacent to its neighbor galaxy, M81, a galaxy with a distinct nucleus and a rounded shape.  The supernova shines against the M82’s “unresolved haze of stars” West and South of M82’s center along the galaxy axis (Astro Bob, 2014, January 22, para. 6-7).

UPDATE: A 15-inch (37 cm telescope) can easily spot the supernova now named SN 2014J, through a 15-inch (37 cm) telescope in an arc of three bright stars.

Gannon, Megan.  (2014, January 23).  Supernova! Exploding star lights up nearby Cigar Galaxy.  Science.  NBC News.  Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/science/supernova-exploding-star-lights-nearby-cigar-galaxy-2D11980643

At 7:20 P.M. London time (19:20 UTC) on January 221, students led by Steve Fossey at the University of London have discovered an exploding star closer to the Earth’s solar system than any supernova seen in the last 20 years.  Located in Messier 82—the Cigar Galaxy—this possible “Holy Grail” for astronomers exploded about 12 million light years from Earth in the Ursa Major Galaxy. An exploding star has suddenly appeared in the night sky, dazzling astronomers who haven't seen a new supernova so close to our solar system in more than 20 years (Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 1 & 3).

Amateur astronomers in the Northern Hemisphere should easily spot the new supernova found between the Big and Little Dipper with the help of a telescope or a small pair of binoculars, according to Brad Tucker, who is affiliated with the Australian National University and the University of California, Berkeley (Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 2).

New supernova in the sky

Although another star, 1993J, exploded in 1993 in approximately the same distance from earth, the only known closer supernova explosion to Earth in the last three decades occurred in February 1987 when Supernova 1987A exploded in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a dwarf galaxy about 168,000 light years from Earth (Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 4).

New of the discovery has turned telescopes around the world to the Messier 82 galaxy to take light curves and spectra measurement to classify the nearest supernova of modern times’ mother star, even though the supernova rate in galaxies like M82 is “typically quite high”(Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 5-6).

A supernova 'Holy Grail'

Caltech astronomers have classified the supernova as a “young, reddened Type Ia supernova” that they think originated in a close binary star system where a white dwarf star orbited around the core of a dead star that had ceased nuclear reactions.  In binary systems, when the white dwarf star siphons off mass to quickly from its companion star, a nuclear reaction takes place in the dead star, resulting in a supernova (Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 7). 

Measurement of Type Ia supernovae has led to the discovery that the universe is expanding since astronomers use supernovae as “standard candles” to measure distance across the universe because they supposedly shine with equal brightness at their peaks.  But to learn more about the cause of this acceleration, or what astronomers call dark energy, they need more precise measurements, which can be difficult since astronomers have to consider both what classification the star that actually explodes is and how dust from the explosion can affect the measurements. However, since the Type Ia was a young star, astronomers are more likely to find out what caused the explosion (Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 8-10). 

Checking the imagery

In this case, however, circumstances strengthen the chance of this discovery: 1) The Hubble Space Telescope has previously taken detailed images of the Cigar Galaxy; 2) The exploding star was “reddened”, indicating that it took place in a dusty environment.  Therefore, astronomers can use the colors of the dust to determine distance measurement.

Thus, making PSN J09554214+6940260 the new supernova “the Holy Grail”—or more accurately the Rosetta stone--of supernovae since astronomers can use it to calibrate other supernovae. Images from the Lick Observatory’s KAIT telescope near San Jose, California, don’t show the supernova as recently as January 15th, so it is only a few days old (Gannon, 2014, January 23, para. 11-13).

Gugliucci, Nicole.  (2014, January 22). Supernova erupts in nearby galaxy M82 Astronomy. Discovery.  Retrieved from http://news.discovery.com/space/astronomy/supernova-erupts-in-nearby-galaxy-m82-140122.htm

A Twitter greeting the morning of January 22, informed astronomers of the discovery of a supernova in a nearby galaxy, M82. This discovery gives them “one of the best chances to observe a supernova . . . in the Northern Hemisphere in recent history!” (Gugliucci, 2014, January 22, para. 1).  Thanks to long timescales of almost all astrophysical events, the night sky remains fairly static.  Therefore, Gugliucci finds this “death knoll of a star blowing itself apart. . . jarring and exciting when it happens so close by” at least by cosmological standards—11.4 million years away (2014, January 22, para. 2-3).

Astronomers classify M82 as a “starburst galaxy”, which means it serves as an incubator to lots of newly formed stars and is home to “core-collapse supernovae”, where massive stars run out of fuel and collapse.  However, this supernova isn’t of that type: Astronomers theorize that white Type Ia supernovae, or a white dwarf turned supernovae such as this one, happen when white dwarfs, which are the remains of smaller stars, run out of fuel and explode when they collect too much mass (Gugliucci, 2014, January 22, para. 4-6).

Type Ia supernovae serve as standard candles since astronomers are able to predict their peak brightness based on observations of how brightness changes with time, or what is known as a light curve. Their reliable brightness allows astronomers to measure galactic distances with accuracy; for example, astronomers use them to determine that dark energy is expanding the universe (Gugliucci, 2014, January 22, para. 7).

Even though white dwarf supernovae are famous for their predictability, the amount of heavy elements in a progenitor white dwarf can affect its brightness, which makes calculating distances more difficult, so astronomers also rely on other forms of evidence to check for distance (Gugliucci, 2014, January 22, para. 8).  Astronomers also have proposed two different theories about how a white dwarf explodes into a supernova:  1) A white dwarf might collect material from a massive red giant star; or 2) a supernova might happen when two white dwarf stars collide (Gugliucci, 2014, January 22, para. 9). 

ANALYSIS: Dust Bunnies Discovered Around ‘Dirty’ Supernova

Astronomers expect the supernova to get brighter since it hasn’t yet reached its peak brightness.  However, it is can already be seen by amateur optical telescopes.  Gugliucci recommends consulting a map on the Universe Today Web site to find the M82 galaxy in the night sky and also recommends looking at Phil Plait’s Bad Astronomy for more information (2014, January 22, para. 10-11).  Fortunately, the McGregor, Texas, McGinley Memorial Public Library Books and Friends blog reviews both articles on this Web page.  

King, Bob. (2014, January 22).  Bright new supernova blows up in nearby M82, the Cigar Galaxy. Universe Today.  Retrieved from http://www.universetoday.com/108386/bright-new-supernova-blows-up-in-nearby-m82-the-cigar-galaxy/

The new supernova currently has a magnitude of +11 to +12, so amateur astronomers will need a 4-inch telescope to see it.  Even so, shining forth from only 12 million miles away, it is the closest supernova since SN1883J exploded in galaxy M81 21 years ago (King, 2014, January 22, para. 1).  Given its brightening in magnitude in the days before it discovery—“it had brightened to magnitude 13.9 on January 16th, and it was 12.2 by January 19th—King wonders why it wasn’t observed before (2014, January 22, para. 2).

King identifies M82 as “bright, striking edge-on spiral galaxy” that can be seen with binoculars. Nicknamed the “Cigar Galaxy” because of its shape, or the “Starburst Galaxy” since its core is an active incubator to supernovae, M82 is only 12 million years away and has already yielded two supernovae in 2004 and 2008 (King, 2014, January 22, para. 3).

Krisch, Joshua A. (2014, January 22).  Here's why the new supernova is so important to scientists. Popular Mechanics.  Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/telescopes/heres-why-the-new-supernova-is-so-important-to-scientists-16411120?click=pm_latest

A long time ago—12 million years in the past—far, far away—twelve million light years away to be specific, which is a relative short distance as a white dwarf supernova shines —a white dwarf star in a binary star system detonated.  Having gradually increased in density, it spit matter upon the surface of its larger twin star until the carbon and oxygen in the core of the white dwarf fused and exploded (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 1). 

Now fast forward  to the night of January 21, when reports begin to pour in, first from Russia and Japan, of the discovery of the closet supernova to Earth seen since the 1980, first known by the designation  PSN J09554214+6940260 (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 2).  All of which causes astronomers like Fiona Harrison, a professor of physics and astronomy at the California Institute of Technology, to gush, “It's a really rare and interesting event—a once-in-a-century opportunity to study this type of supernova in exquisite detail” (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 4).

This enthusiasm in part, however, isn’t only generated by the fact that supernovae “aren’t simply incredible explosions”, for “they represent a cosmic yard stick of sorts”:  Astronomers use Type Ia supernovae, like this find to plot the distances across galaxies because these white dwarf supernovae produce “a standard amount of light based on their mass (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 5).

Even so, since controlled experiments are almost impossible to do in astronomy, and current cosmological maps depend upon how bright supernovae presumably are, so astronomers wish for a Type Ia supernova that occurs close enough to Earth that they can analyze the star before and after it explodes, so they can exactly measure its brightness.  Brad Tucker, an astronomer affiliated with the University of California, Berkeley [and Australian National University], however believes that this supernova just might provide astronomers with the opportunity to improve all their measurements (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 6-7).

Accordingly, Caltech astronomers are training their x-ray telescope NuStar on M82 to study the radiation produced by the blast for the next two weeks (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 8). But while professional astronomers are collecting data that might possibly change how they measure distance in space, meanwhile amateur astronomers will have the opportunity to use their binoculars to witness a supernova at its zenith in early February by looking between the Little Dipper and the Bigger Dipper in Ursa Minor (Krisch, 2014, January 22, para. 9-10).

The Ursa Minor constellation  

http://www.capella-observatory.com/ImageHTMLs/Galaxies/UMiDwarf.htm

Lakdawalla, Emily. (2014, January 22).  Super-close supernova in M82.  Plantetary.org. Retrieved from http://www.planetary.org/blogs/emily-lakdawalla/2014/01220929-super-close-supernova-in-m82.html

Astronomers are a-twittering away at the discovery on January 22nd of a new Type Ia supernova in Galaxy M82, a mere 12 million light years away.  This makes it the closest supernova since 1987A and the closest Type IA supernova since SN 1972E.   All of which made quite a night for the students working for University of London astrophysicist Steve Fossey (Lakdawalla, 2014, January 22, para. 1).  Accordingly, Lakdawalla is recommending that amateur astronomers consult SkyMania, Universe Today, and Sky & Telescope before grabbing their telescope or binoculars (2014, January 22, para. 1-2).

Meanwhile supernovas are a natural phenomenon that set Lakdawalla daydreaming:

So enormous, so mind-bogglingly violent, this little flash could have destroyed whole solar systems, and sterilized many more. And yet out of their destruction, rebirth: the seeding of their galaxy with the heavy elements from which life-building molecules and planet-building rocks are made: Life out of death, annihilation begetting creation, the goddess Kali incarnate.

(Lakdawalla, 2014, January 22, para. 3)

Laursen, Lucas and Nature Magazine. (2014, January 23).  Supernova erupts in nearby galaxy.  Space » News. Scientific American.  Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/supernova-erupts-in-nearby-galaxy/

Tuesday evening, January 21st, light from a new supernova reached Earth from a nearby galaxy, M82 from 3.5 mega parsecs, or 11.4 light years away in one of the largest explosions of a dying sun since 1987.  Astronomers predict that light from the Type Ia class supernova may be visible to sky watchers only using binoculars in two weeks, thus helping astronomers better understand how supernovae form as well as the shape of the universe (Laursen, 2014, January 23, para.1-2).

Already the supernova’s light was bright enough for a 35-centimeter telescope at University College London to spot when tutor Steve Fossey was holding a routine lesson.  However, as M82, or the Cigar Galaxy, appeared, he noticed a star sitting on the edge of a galaxy disc that didn’t match his memory of the galaxy, or any images the class looked up on the Internet.  As the London sky grew cloudy, the students checked the telescope for instrumental errors and to make sure the object wasn’t an asteroid.  Double checking the find, Fossey looked through another observatory telescope and confirmed the object’s location before the sky became too cloudy for star gazing at 7: 45 P.M.  At this point, he e-mailed fellow astronomers at the California Institute of Pasadena (Laursen, 2014, January 23, para. 3-4).

A Cal Tech graduate student in astronomy, Yi Cao, then searched for a spectrum for the object and arranged to begin observing it with a 3.5 meter spectrograph telescope in New Mexico.  Then just before 9 A.M. London time, he dashed off a note to the Astronomer’s Telegram, reporting that the spectrum matched a Type Ia supernova, which may brightened for two more weeks (Laursen, 2014, January 23, para. 5). Thus, by the time it will possibly be visible through binoculars, astronomers will have made a super “effort to marshal observing resources”, giving them a rare opportunity to look at the remnants of a white dwarf –“an old dim star that has already shed excess mass—and passes a critical threshold, igniting a thermonuclear explosion (Laursen, 2014, January 23, para. 6-7).

It’s surprising to find a supernova within M82, a galaxy known for forming young stars, since Type Ia supernovae most often come from old white dwarf stars, although some Type Ia types might be produced from the merger of two white dwarfs.  By way of contrast, the 1987 supernova came from a Type 2 category supernova that a giant star’s collapsing core created (Laursen, 2014, January 23, para. 8). 

The M82 galaxy’s proximity to Earth is also a stroke of luck since there are more existing images of the star before it exploded, including some taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. Cao and his colleagues, therefore, will be able to look through these images, searching for the location of the white dwarf sun before it turned into a supernova, and when its light shines through the dust, this could provide additional information about the M82 galaxy as well.  Accordingly, one team of astronomers is already looking for radioactive elements like nickel that may form in a supernova (Laursen, 2014, January 23, para. 9).

MacRoberts, Alan. (2014, January 22).  Bright supernova in M82.  Highlights.  Sky and Telescope.  Retrieved from http://www.skyandtelescope.com/observing/highlights/Bright-Supernova-in-M82-241477661.html

Already brightening to the 11th magnitude, Supernova 2014J is visible when amateur astronomers point their telescopes to the M82 galaxy, which lies just off the Big Dipper. This supernova found in the irregular galaxy in Ursa Major already has a magnitude of 11.3, and shines a shade “on the orange side of white: (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 1-2). 

However, the spectrum reported by Yi Cao and his Cal Tech colleagues indicates that it is still two weeks away from reaching its peak of brightness.  Spectra classify supernova 2014J as an exploded white dwarf, or Type Ia supernova, “with debris expanding at 20,000 kilometers per second.  Dust in the telescope’s line of sight also shows that it has reddened and dimmed (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 3-4).

Supernova in Messier 82

At about 11 or 12 million light years distance, M82 is about as “near neighbor as galaxies go”, so it’s a favorite of both amateur and professional astronomers, who can observe “its thick dust bands, sprays of gas, and bright center undergoing massive star formation” (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 5).  However, 2014 J is not located in M82’s central star-forming region, but 58 arcs seconds to its west-southwest (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 5).

Unfiltered CCD images of the region taken before the discovery of supernova 2014J showed nothing in the supernova’s location to as faint as magnitude 17.0 through January 14th, but on January 15th, the supernova’s brightness magnitude measured 14.4, and by January 20th, its magnitude was 11.9 (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 6).  To find 2014J, look in the dim region of Ursa Major off the Big Dipper for the M81-M82 pair of galaxies.  Upon finding the general area, sky watchers can then turn to Sky and Telescope’s detailed chart (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 7).

S &T

Observers in the mid-northern latitudes should look for the M82 galaxy in the northeastern sky by 7 or 8 P.M. and then consult the link from furnished by the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO). Additionally, the AAVSO provides a preliminary light curve (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 8-9).

A Flukey Find

The first observers to recognize the supernova were University of London undergraduate students Ben Cooke, Tom Wright, Matthew Wilde, and Guy Pollack, helped by teaching fellow Stephen J. Fossey, while their 10-minute telescope workshop was taking a “quick image” at the College’s observatory on the evening of January 21, 2014 at 19: 20 UT (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 10-11).

Fossey explains, “The weather was closing in, with increasing cloud . . . so instead of the planned practical astronomy class, I gave the students an introductory demonstration of how to use the CCD camera on one of the observatory’s automated 0.35-meter telescopes. The students chose M82, a bright and photogenic galaxy, as their target, as it was in one of the shrinking patches of clear sky” (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 12-13).  As Fossey was adjusting the telescope’s position, the tutor then noticed a star that he didn’t remember (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 14).

The group then looked for online archive images of the galaxy, confirming that this was a newly discovered star-like object in the M82 Galaxy.  But because the sky was becoming cloudy, the workshop switched to taking a series of one- and two-minute exposures with different colored filters to see if the object appeared in all their photographs as well as to determine the supernova’s magnitude and color (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 15). 

The BBC’s original press release claimed that the white dwarf supernova is the nearest supernova since 1987A appeared in the Large Magellanic Cloud, but SN 1993 M81 is about the same distance from Earth as were SN 2004am and SN 2008iz (MacRoberts, 2014, January 22, para. 16).  

Binary star system with white dwarf and red giant companion 

http://www.amnh.org/science/papers/dwarf_novae.php

Misra, Ria. (2014, January 22).  A white dwarf just exploded, creating the closest supernova in 25 years. Space.  io9.  Retrieved from http://io9.com/a-white-dwarf-just-exploded-creating-the-closest-super-1506539405

io9 provides its readers with some of the first photos taken of a recently discovered white dwarf supernova that exploded in the Cigar Galaxy taken by the University of London undergraduates, supervised by their tutor, Steve Fossey, Tuesday, January 21, 2014.  However, images are still coming in since the International Astronomical Union’s Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegraphs has put out a call for additional images (Misra, 2014, January 22, para. 1-2 & 4).

Of course, saying that the supernova, temporarily named PSN_J09554214+6940260, is the closest supernova seen in the last 25 years “is relative”, for galaxy M82 is about 12-million light years away, which makes it well within the range of observatories and possibly backyard telescopes as well (Misra, 2014, January 22, para. 3-4).

Type Ia supernovae, such as the recently discovered white dwarf, form when their interaction with another star causes them  to either collide or explode.  When this occurs, the light they omit is so similar to all other Type Ia explosions that astronomers use it as a standard of measure when determining distances across the universe (Misra, 2014, January 22, para. 4).

The story not only includes still photos of the supernova but also an animation of the supernova made by Remanzacco Observatory (Misra, 2014, January 22, para. 5).

Mukunth, Vasudevan. (2014, January 22; updated 2014, January 23, 15:09 IST).  Type 1a supernova spotted in M82 galaxy.  S & T » Science.   The Hindu.  Retrieved from http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/type-1a-supernova-spotted-in-m82-galaxy/article5606478.ece

Sky watchers spotted a Type 1a supernova on the night of January 22nd in the Starburst Galaxy, M82, a classification that indicates that it is rapidly birthing stars while a lot of older stars are also continuously dying.  Located 11.4 million light-years from Earth, is the closest supernova discovered within the last four decades, and so it will give astronomers and cosmologist insight into how supernovas occur (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 1 & 3).

Classified as a Type Ia supernova (SN Ia), this kind of supernova appears when a white dwarf absorbs too much energy from a neighboring star and blows apart, leaving only the white dwarf when a small-to-medium mass star dies, turning into a dense core made up of carbon, oxygen and electron deteriorated matter. However, when a heavier star explodes, it leaves behind a neutron star or a black hole (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 2). 

The spotting of a Type Ia supernova soon after its creation is fortuitous since astronomers haven’t spotted this category since the 1970s, and this gives researchers plenty of time to discover exactly what happened (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 3).  However, when such an explosion occurs, the light doesn’t immediately head for Earth since the light that becomes trapped in the explosion leaves behind a lot of matter, delaying it.  Those “ghost particles”, or neutrinos, that can travel through the decayed matter get to Earth before the light from the explosion does (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 4). 

A Type Ia supernova produces fewer neutrinos than a Type 2 supernova does, so they might not warrant being studied by the IceCube neutrino detector at the South Pole, although the supernova might give astronomers the chance to study the origin of supernova gamma fays in detail (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 5). 

Astronomers know exactly when the star exploded—11.4 million years ago—by measuring how its brightness has varied over time.  Indeed, because Type Ia, white dwarf supernovas are known for adhering to a well-established pattern of brightness, they serve as a cosmic measuring standard that helps astronomers determine relative distances of celestial objects. For example, white dwarfs helped astronomers discover that the universe is expanding at an accelerated rate because of dark energy (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 6-7).

German astronomer Daniel Fischer speculates that the supernova was missed by larger telescopes because it was “too bright”--so saturating images that lead astronomers to believe that the light was coming from the Milky Wave galaxy. Thus, it fell to a group of amateur astronomers to make this serendipitous observation early on before the supernova further brightens (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 8-9).  

Astronomer Brad Tucker, of the Australian National University [and the University of California, Berkeley], credits Russian amateur astronomers with  SN J2014’s discovery, although other sources, including a workshop of University of London undergraduates, confirmed its appearance, and Japanese amateur astronomer Koichi Itagaki, took photographs of the supernova on January 14, 2013 (Mukunth, 2014, January 22, para. 10).

Plait, Phil. (2014, January 22).  KABOOM! Nearby Galaxy M82 hosts a new supernova! Bad Astronomy.  Slate.  Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2014/01/22/kaboom_nearby_galaxy_m82_hosts_a_new_supernova.html

Plait woke up on January 22, 2014, to the news that a supernova has exploded in the neighboring galaxy M82, and this proximity will enable astronomers study this explosion in detail (2014, January 22, para. 1-2). Given the preliminary name of PSN J09554214+6940260 based on its coordinates, the star is near enough to see with a telescope, but not so near that it poses any danger to Earth.  Moreover, since amateur astronomers have discovered it two weeks before it reaches its peak magnitude, this gives them plenty of time to view the star, which may get as bright as an 8th magnitude, making it bright enough to be seen with binoculars. Currently, the supernova has reached about a 12 magnitude, so it will be awhile before it even approaches the magnitude it takes to see a celestial object with the naked eye –about magnitude 6 (Plait, 2014, January 22, para. 3-4).

The supernova is a Type Ia white dwarf explosion--where a “small dense, hot core left over after a star turns into a red giant, blows off its outer layers, and essentially “dies”—in an eruption that encompasses three competing scenarios (Plait, 2014, January 22, para. 5):

The white dwarf orbiting another star draws off its matter and accumulates it on its own surface.  Eventually, gravity so compresses this matter that its fuses, creating an explosion that blasts apart the star.  As two white dwarfs orbit each other, in time they merge and explode as a third star warps the orbits of two dwarfs, so they collide together (Plait, 2014, January 22, para. 6-8).

The appearance of the newly discovered supernova coincides with a burst in star formation in the M82 Galaxy, which is serving as an incubator to lots of massive stars that live relative short lives before exploding as Type II, core collapse, supernovae, that form very differently than the newly discovered Type Ia supernova did (Plait, 2014, January 22, para. 9).

Type Ia supernovae usually explode with the same energy wherever they are located in the universe, so astronomers can view them from billions of light years away and thus use them to measure distances in far away and long ago galaxies, thereby discovering such astronomical concepts as dark energy, which accelerates the expansion of the Universe (Plait, 2014, January 22, para. 10).   Accordingly, Plait is putting out a call for prediscovery images of M82 before the supernova exploded (2014, January 22, para. 11).

Spector, Dina. (2014, January 22).  A star that exploded 12 million years ago just appeared in our telescopes.  Science.  Business Insider.  Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com/supernova-spotted-close-to-earth-in-m82-galaxy-2014-1

Last night, the University of London Observatory (UCL) discovered an exploding star in a galaxy 12 million light years away, a relatively close distance considering the size of the universe (Spector, 2014, January 22, para. 1-2), noting in its statement that this is the closest supernova to Earth to be observed since 1987.  Astronomers are only just seeing the explosion’s light, even though it blew up 12 million years ago (Spector, 2014, January 22, para. 3-4).

Because the star is so nearby, the supernova first spotted by students and their teacher in the Messier 82 (M82) galaxy, or “Cigar Galaxy”, is “bright enough to see with small telescopes”, according to Bob King at Universe Today (Spector, 2014, January 22, para. 5-6).

Astronomers believe it to be a Type Ia supernova, caused by a white dwarf pulling matter away from a neighboring larger star until it becomes unstable and explodes.  The explosion also probably produced high-energy particles, known as neutrinos, although the M82 galaxy might be too far away for Earth-based detectors to record them (Spector, 2014, January 22, para 8-9).

In two weeks the supernova should continue to brighten enough to be seen with binoculars near the Big Dipper.  Business Insider has included a map to help readers find it (Spector, 2014, January 22, para. 10-11).

Sudden supernova in M82 Galaxy rips apart the night sky (a bit).  (2014, January 22).  Huffington Post UK.  Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/01/22/m82-supernova_n_4644356.html?just_reloaded=1

Astronomers are currently hailing the explosion of an supernova in the galaxy M82, 11.5 million years ago as a chance for contemporary observers to study a relatively rare event matched only in proximity by Supernova SN 1993J in 1993 and SN1987A in 1987 (Sudden, 2014, January 22, para. 1-3).

Ordinarily supernovae explode when massive stars run out of hydrogen and collapse, releasing energy in an explosion that is visible across a great expanse of space.  However, this supernova is a white dwarf supernova.  White supernovae occur either when an isolated white dwarf star swells in size, collapses, and then explodes, or when two dwarf stars collide (Sudden, 2014, January, para. 4-5).

Sutherland, Paul. (2014, January 22).  Bright supernova explodes in nearby galaxy M82. Skymania.  Retrieved from http://www.skymania.com/wp/2014/01/bright-supernova-explodes-nearby-galaxy-m82.html/8362/

A supernova explosion has appeared in galaxy Messier 82, or M82, approximately 11.4 years away from earth, a galaxy that Sutherland classifies as a “favorite target for amateur astronomers” (2014, January 22, para. 1-2).  High powered telescopic images currently show a “bright blob against the cigar shape of the galaxy” in the constellation Ursa Major.  Astronomers estimate its current brightness at a little above 12 magnitude, but they forecast that it could reach a magnitude 8 magnitude, making it visible with binoculars (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 3-4). Sutherland recommends imagining a line through the stars gamma (γ) and alpha (α) that will point to the galaxy is found (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 5).

Steve Fossey and his students discovered the supernova Tuesday night, January 21, 2014, at the University of London’s teaching observatory at Mill Hill, North London, and Russian astronomers, L. Elenin and I Molotov, later confirmed its existence using a 0.4 meter telescope at the ISON-NM Observatory at Mayhill, New Mexico. Sutherland places its position as 09h 55m 42s, +69d 40’ 25.8”, and notes that its brightness upon discovery was magnitude 11.76-7. News of the discovery quickly spread as twittering professional astronomers compared notes (2014, January 22, para. 6-8).

Fossey, however, modestly describes the discovery as a “fluke”.  When he and his students were reasonably certain that an image that didn’t look quite right was a supernova, however, Fossey e-mailed an alert to the International Astronomical Union, so other observatories could confirm the siting (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 9-10).  

Oxford University astronomer Chris Linott notes that this nearby supernova might be a Type Ia, the kind of supernova astronomers use to make the Universe’s expansion.  This classification makes it “especially exciting” (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 11). Brad Tucker, from the Mount Stromlo Observatory, Australia, is also looking forward to learning from this discovery since the supernova, “Any supernova that we catch early will help us understand how they explode and what the star is that explodes, as the earlier we can observe a SN, the more clues we get. For instance, at very early times, between an hour and a couple of days, we may be able to see the shock wave of the explosion propagate through the star, much like the shock wave from a nuclear bomb occurs before the nastiness follows” (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 12-14).

Tucker also classifies the supernova as a Type Ia, the type of supernova astronomers use to measure distances across the universe and the type of supernova that led to the discovery that the Universe is expanding, which implies that the Universe consists of 70 percent dark energy—a finding that earned the 2011 Nobel Prize (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 15).  This discovery, however, calls for more precise appraisals, which might be a problem since really exact calculations need to differentiate between the white dwarfs and their progenitors, and because the dust produced by supernovae explosions also throws off their measurements (Sutherland 2014, January 22, para. 16).

Tucker nevertheless remains hopeful, “So the fact that this SN is a Type Ia, caught young, means we have a good chance of finding clues to the explosion. Since it is so close, the Hubble Space Telescope has pre-imaged the galaxy, images long before the star would have blown up, which may allow us to directly see the star”(Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 17).  Furthermore Tucker notes, since astronomers know that a Type Ia supernovae originates in a dusty environment, they can analyze how the dust affects the supernova’s colors and therefore its distant measurements. Tucker, thus concludes, “In short, this is the Holy Grail” (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 18).

Sutherland then notes that the closest supernova to explode recently, SN 1987A, exploded in the Milky Way’s companion galaxy, the Large Magellanic Cloud.  SN1987 reached a magnitude 3.  In 2011, a supernova exploded in M51, 23 million light years away from Earth (Sutherland, 2014, January 22, para. 19).

University of London Observatory at Mill Hill http://www.ulo.ucl.ac.u

Supernova spotted in nearby galaxy M82. (2014, January 22).  Society for Popular Astronomy. Retrieved from http://www.popastro.com/news/newsdetail.php?id_nw=235

The British Society for Popular Astronomy reports “a relatively close supernova in the galaxy Messier 82: approximately 11.4 million lights years away, whose serendipitous discovery occurred in “the light-polluted suburbs of London” (SPA, 2014, January 22, para. 1). Images show it as “a bright blog against the cigar shape of the M82 galaxy, which can be found in the constellation Ursa Minor.  Observers can find this galaxy by first looking for the Big Dipper This blog could eventually reach magnitude 8.  Officially, the supernova, designated SN2014J can be measured as 09h 55m 42s, +69d 40’ 25.8”.  At the time of SN2014J’s discovery it had a magnitude of 11.7 (SPA, 2014, January 22, para. 2-4 & 7).  

Tutor Steve Fossey and his students first reported observing the supernova from the University of London's teaching observatory Tuesday night, January 21, 2014, at Mill Hill, London, and Russian astronomers Leonard Elenin and I. Molotov confirmed the supernova’s existence from the ISON-New Mexico Observatory at Mayhill (SPA, 2014, January 22, para. 6-7).

Pre-discovery images have turned up the week before its discovery, although it went unnoticed until January 21, 2014.  However, the use of social media quickly spread the news of this discovery (SPA, 2014, January 22, para. 8-9). Since this is a nearby supernova, most probably designated as a Type Ia supernova, astronomers look forward to using it to help measure distances across the Universe (SPA, 2014, January 22, para. 11). The SPA notes that the closest supernova to explode in recent years was SN1978, which was located in the Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy (2014, January 22, para. 12).

Vincent, James. (2014, January 24).  Supernova detected in the galaxy next door: Type 1a explosion spotted in Galaxy M82.  News.  Science.  The Independent.  Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/supernova-detected-in-the-galaxy-next-door-type-1a-explosion-spotted-in-galaxy-m82-9083909.html

Since exploding stars are a fairly common event, they usually don’t cause much notice except when such an explosion occurs only 11.4 million miles away, which is exactly what happened with a supernova that occurred with the supernova Vincent calls “supernova M82”, naming it after its galaxy (Vincent, 2014, January 24, para. 1-2).  Officially, however, the star is SN 2014J, a scheme that identifies the month in which it was discovered. Vincent identifies supernovae as exploding stars that emit during a matter of weeks as much matter in a few week as the sun will emit over its lifespan of around 10 billion years (2014, January 24, para. 3).

Vincent, however, is correct in his statement that “there has been some contention over who was the first to spot the new supernova, with a team of amateur Russian astronomers in Blagoveshchensk and an astronomer from University College London, Steve Fossey, both claiming to have been first on the scene” (2014, January 24, para. 4).  But what is known for certain is that “after Fossey spotted the supernova on 21 January, he emailed colleagues at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. There, graduate student Yi Cao undertook a spectral analysis of the object, confirming that it was a supernova and identifying it as a type Ia event” (Vincent, 2014, January 24, para. 4).

This classification particularly excites astronomers. Because their variations in brightness follow “a well-established pattern” that allows astronomers to use them to measure vast distances across the cosmos (Vincent, 2014, January 24, para. 5 & 8).  Type I supernovae occur when a process known as “thermal runaway” is triggered between a binary pair of stars in which a white dwarf has exhausted all its fuel whereupon it begins to pull matter away from its larger red giant neighbor, thus recharging its own core, causing it to explode (Vincent, 2014, January 24, para. 6-7).

Since galaxy M82 (a.k.a. the Cigar Galaxy) is so close to Earth, astronomers are already comparing images of the region taken before the supernova exploded so they can learn more about how these explosions occur (Vincent, 2014, January 24, para. 8).

Because galaxy M82 (also known as the Cigar Galaxy) is so close to us, astronomers have plenty of pictures of the region prior to the supernova’s appearance  and have already begun comparing these images, sifting through the galactic dust to find out more about how supernovae create different elements. As Shri Kulkarni, an astronomer at the California Institute of Technology, told the journal Nature: “Dust has its own charms”(Vincent, 2014, January 24, para. 9-10).

Supernova Definitions:

Black hole:  NASA defines a black hole as “a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light cannot escape. The gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space. This can happen when a star is dying. Because no light can get out,  black holes are invisible, although. space telescopes with special tools can help find them. The special tools can see how stars that are very close to black holes act differently than other stars” (Smith, 2013, September 18, para. 1).

According to physicist Stephen Hawking, this tradition definition needs some tweaking: “’There is no escape from a black hole in classical theory,’ Hawking told Nature. Quantum theory, however, ‘enables energy and information to escape from a black hole’. A full explanation of the process, the physicist admits, would require a theory that successfully merges gravity with the other fundamental forces of nature. But that is a goal that has eluded physicists for nearly a century. ‘The correct treatment,’ Hawking says, ‘remains a mystery.’” (Merali, 2014, January 24, para. 3).

The earliest known black hole 

http://science.psu.edu/news-and-events/2010-news/Brandt3-2010

Smith, Heather. (2013, September 18).  What is a black hole?  NASA.  Retrieved from http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/what-is-a-black-hole-k4.html#.UuK1mhDnaM8

Merali, Zeeya. (2014, January 24).  Stephen Hawking: ‘There are no black holes’.  News & Comment.  Nature. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/news/stephen-hawking-there-are-no-black-holes-1.14583

Core-collapse Supernova: A core collapse supernova occurs when a massive star with a mass between 8 and 50 times the size of sun exhausts all its fuel supply, fusing oxygen and hydrogen into heavier elements. However, once this nuclear fusion creates iron, the fusion shuts off and lacking the energy thus generated, the star’s gravitational pull causes the core to collapse in on itself into a neutron star or a black hole (The Supernova, 2005, 8 February, para. 9-11).

The Supernova. (2005, 8 February).  Goddard Space Flight Center.  NASA.  Retrieved from http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/sn_overview.html

Dark Energy: “Dark energy is a mysterious force that is accelerating the expansion of the universe. The expansion has slowed the clustering of dark matter, one of the universe's main building blocks” (LSST, 2013, para. 1). To explain the acceleration of an expanding universe, physicists came up with this hypothetical energy to fill in the blank since ordinary matter that makes up the stars and the planets only accounts for five percent of the universe while dark max comprises only 25 percent of the universe’s mass (LSST, 2013, para. 7).

Dark Energy. (2013). LSST.  Retrieved from http://www.lsst.org/lsst/public/dark_energy

Neutrinos (also known as Ghost particles): Neutrons are neutral subatomic particles that interact very weakly with other forms of matter they have a mass of no greater than 0.28 electron volts, but it is difficult to measure since the makes up a billionth of the mass of a single hydrogen atom (Rincon, para. 2-5).

Rincon, Paul.  (2010, June 22).  Neutrino 'ghost particle' sized up by astronomers. BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10364160

Red Giant star: A red giant star is a star that has reached the last stage of its developing swelling to a size that ranges between 100 to 1,000 times the size of the sun, even though the star’s surface temperatures are actually much cooler.  This temperature change causes the star to shine in the red part of the spectrum, hence the name “red giant” (Redd, 2014, August 21, para. 1 & 4). Eventually, however, nuclear fusion uses up all the helium in a red sun’s core, so it shrinks until a new helium shell reaches its core whereupon it collapses in on itself, becoming a Type II supernova.  By way of contrast, smaller stars like the sun eventually end up as white dwarfs before turning into a Type I supernova (Rincon, 2010, June 22, para. 6-7).

Redd, Nola Taylor.  (2014, August 21).  Red Giant Stars: Facts, Definition & the Future of the Sun.  SPACE.com. Retrieved from http://www.space.com/22471-red-giant-stars.html

Starburst Galaxies: A starburst galaxy is a galaxy where “rapid star formation is occurring or has occurred in the recent past.  Astronomers think the rapid star birth is caused by gravitational interaction with another galaxy” (Amazing space, n. d., Vocabulary).  Messier 82 (M82) is nicknamed the “Starburst Galaxy” as well as the “Cigar Galaxy”.

Amazing space.  (n. d.). Vocabulary.  Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA.  Retrieved from http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/print/lithos/m82_litho.pdf

Supernova: “A supernova is an explosion of a massive super giant star” (Supernovae, n. d., para. 1). Astronomers classify supernovae as Type I or Type II depending upon the shape of their light curves and the characteristics of their spectra (Supernovae, n. d., para. 4).

Supernovae. (n. d.).  Hyperphysics.  Georgia State University.  Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/snovcn.html

Type Ia supernova: A Type Ia supernova begins as the larger sibling as part of a pair of binary stars where one of the stars is much more massive than the other.  This means it becomes a red dwarf star much faster than the other star whereupon the smaller star starts to pull off matter from the other star into itself. The red giant star then collapses into a white dwarf.  The once smaller companion starts to swell in size, increasing until it reaches a critical mass, exploding and ejecting its companion star.  The larger binary star once it has become a white dwarf eventually doesn’t have enough energy to create nuclear fusion or to withstand the massive pressure this causes, so it collapses into itself and becomes a neutron star (Falck, 2007, para. 4-5).

Falck, Bridget. (2007). Type Ia supernova cosmology with ADEPT. Johns Hopkins University.  Retrieved from http://www.pha.jhu.edu/~bfalck/SeminarPres.html

Type II supernova:  Type II supernovae occur when red giants use up so much energy that their iron core reaches a state of Chandrasekhar Mass.  At this point, the core collapses, and the pressure pushes protons and electrons together to form neutrons and neutrinos, exerting even more pressure so that the red giant’s outer core collapses, sending shock waves outward, blowing apart the star.  The brightness of this huge explosion sometimes rivals the magnitude of an entire galaxy for several weeks (Méndez, 2000, October, para. 1-5).  

Méndez, Brian. (2000, October). Type II Supernova. The Universe of Brian Méndez.  Center for Science Education.  Space Sciences Laboratory.  University of California.  Retrieved from http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/bmendez/ay10/2000/cycle/snII.html

White dwarf stars:  ‘A white dwarf is what stars like the Sun become after they have exhausted their nuclear fuel”, expelling most of its outer material near the end of its burning stage to create a planetary nebula (White dwarf stars, 2010, December 21, para. 1).  

White dwarf stars. (2010, December 21).  Imagine the Universe.  Goddard Space Center. NASA.  Retrieved from http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/dwarfs.html